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	<title>ImJoYo, Im ❤•终于°,Im 仲照宇经济学</title>
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		<title>My Microeconomic Notes—Indirect Utility Function</title>
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		<pubDate>Thu, 08 Apr 2010 14:52:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>❤•终于°</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[纯属扯淡]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[经济学]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Direct utility function : U = f (q1,q2) At the equilibrium &#160;q1* = q1 (p1,p2,y) &#160; &#160;q2* = q2 (p1,p2,y) &#8594;U* = f [q1*（p1,p2,y）,q2*(p1,p2,y) ] = g(p1,p2,y) &#8230;&#8230; This is an indirect utility function The indirect utility function is convenient to examine the effect of changes in prices and income on utility. Suppose in the [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Direct utility function :</p>
<p>U = f (q<sub>1</sub>,q<sub>2</sub>)</p>
<p>At the equilibrium &nbsp;q<sub>1</sub>* = q<sub>1</sub> (p<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>2</sub>,y) &nbsp; &nbsp;q<sub>2</sub>* = q<sub>2</sub> (p<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>2</sub>,y)</p>
<p>&rarr;U* = f [q<sub>1</sub>*（p<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>2</sub>,y）,q<sub>2</sub>*(p<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>2</sub>,y) ] = g(p<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>2</sub>,y) &#8230;&#8230; This is an indirect utility function<span id="more-1799"></span></p>
<p>The indirect utility function is convenient to examine the effect of changes in prices and income on utility.</p>
<p>Suppose in the base year , we have U<sup>0</sup> = g(p<sub>1</sub><sup>0</sup>,p<sub>2</sub><sup>0</sup>,y<sup>0</sup>) &#8230;&#8230; （1）</p>
<p>Suppose prices change to p<sub>1</sub>`,p<sub>2</sub>`</p>
<p>Then by setting U<sup>0</sup> = g(p<sub>1</sub>`,p<sub>2</sub>`,y) &#8230;&#8230;(2) and equating (1) and (2) ,we can compute the value of y such that the utility level is unchanged under two sets of prices.</p>
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		<title>萨缪尔森 《经济学》第18版 中文版 电子书</title>
		<link>http://imjoyo.com/samuelson-u0026quoteconomicsu0026quot-18th-edition-chinese-e-books.html</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 05 Mar 2010 03:20:23 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>❤•终于°</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[纯属扯淡]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[经济学]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.imjoyo.com/?p=1751</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[伴随着萨缪尔森同学的去世，第19版还没有被翻译的情况下，这本书可能是最新的中文版《经济学》电子书了。 上学期就是用的这本，主要是微观经济学。我们使用的是第18版英文影印版，看起来是相当地困难。因此，难理解的时候我们就会参考一下这本中文课本。 国外教材不同于国内教材，很多问题可能与书本知识毫无关联，答案也很让人莫名奇妙。 废话不多说了，给个下载：经济学 中文版 第18版 萨缪尔森 PDF电子书 相关文章 什么是承诺升级(Escalating Commitment)以及与有限理性和沉没成本的联系( 5 ) My Microeconomic Notes—Indirect Utility Function( 0 ) /*more 标签*/ var cpro_id = 'u395518';]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>伴随着萨缪尔森同学的去世，第19版还没有被翻译的情况下，这本书可能是最新的中文版《经济学》电子书了。</p>
<p>上学期就是用的这本，主要是微观经济学。我们使用的是第18版英文影印版，看起来是相当地困难。因此，难理解的时候我们就会参考一下这本中文课本。</p>
<p>国外教材不同于国内教材，很多问题可能与书本知识毫无关联，答案也很让人莫名奇妙。</p>
<p>废话不多说了，给个下载：<a href="http://www.imjoyo.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Economics_18th__CH.zip">经济学 中文版 第18版 萨缪尔森 PDF电子书</a></p>
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		<title>什么是承诺升级(Escalating Commitment)以及与有限理性和沉没成本的联系</title>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 19 Jan 2010 00:44:49 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>❤•终于°</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[纯属扯淡]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[管理学]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[经济学]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.imjoyo.com/?p=154</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[在罗宾斯的《管理学》( Management by Robbins and Coulter)一书中，在对有限理性（Bounded Rationality）进行解释的时候，提到了&#8220;承诺升级（Escalating Commitment）&#8221;这一名词。 因为放假没带书，网上又找不到英文的电子书，因此再次附上中文内容，待我开学以后再加上原文（如果我还记得的话）。 中文： 如果你在搜索引擎上搜索，(至少现在是这样)，你会发现关于这个概念的中文资料少之又少。 能够找到的定义是： &#160; 承诺升级理论（The Theory of Escalating Commitment）： &#8220;继续错误的代价由别人承担，而承认错误的代价由自己承担。&#8221;这句话是诺贝尔经济学奖获得者Joseph Stiglitz的生活哲学。 Joseph E.Stiglitz，1943年出生，1967年获麻省理工学院博士学位，此后在剑桥大学从事研究工作。1969年，年仅26岁的Stiglitz被耶鲁大学聘为经济学教授。1979年，他获得了美国经济学会两年一度的约翰.贝茨.克拉克奖，该奖项用于表彰对经济学作出杰出贡献的40岁以下的经济学家。1988年起他在斯坦福大学任经济学教授，自1993年开始成为克林顿总统经济顾问团的主要成员，并且从1995年6月起任该团主席。在此期间，他是克林顿总统顾问班子的关键成员。1997年起任世界银行副总裁、首席经济学家。现任哥伦比亚大学经济学和金融学教授、美国布鲁金斯学会高级研究员。 因&#8220;对存在着信息不对称的市场的分析&#8221;，他同阿克洛夫（George Akerlof）和斯彭斯（A Michael Spence）一起分享了2001年度诺贝尔经济学奖。他为信息经济学的创立作出了重大贡献，所著《经济学》被称为与萨缪尔逊的《经济学》齐名的里程碑式的经济学教材&#160; &#160;&#160;&#8220;继续错误的代价由别人承担，而承认错误的代价由自己承担。&#8221; 简单的讲，就是要勇于承认错误 。 &#160; 这是一个很抽象的概念，让我云里雾里一塌糊涂，但是除此之外很难找到其他的解释了。 我搜索到了几篇学术文章，但是没有办法查看，因为是付费资料。 但是幸好在网易博客中发现一位名为&#8220;撒旦&#8221;的博友写的日志，让我对&#8220;承诺升级&#8221;有了更好地认识。 原文如下（点击此处查看） 为什么两个并不真正相爱，两情并不相悦的人还是能走入婚姻殿堂，婚姻并不幸福的两个人最终还是会走完一生？有时候就是出于承诺升级的心理作用。 &#160; &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;一个小伙子因赌气，因在哥们前撑面子，或因一时的冲动情绪，拉了一下一个陌生姑娘的手，而后的日子里，想想手都拉过了，就和她谈恋爱吧，后来虽然在交往过程中发现不适合，但想想都谈那么久了，就结婚了吧，结了婚，生理无法控制呀，就有了小孩，那该尽父亲的责任吧，然后等小孩大了，都人过中年了，还想什么感情，离什么婚呀，就凑和过一辈子吧。 &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;反过来，女孩子因传统观念的影响，在这方面表现更甚，想想手都被你拉了，人都是你的了，孩子都生了，自己都付出那么多了，再怎么样，也凑和着过吧。 &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;所以告诫各位年轻的朋友，要想一生的幸福，千万不要轻易冲动啊，即便一时的冲动，事后也要谨慎理智分析，如有问题一定要果断处理，长痛不如短痛。特别在婚前一定要问自己一个问题，&#8220;如果不考虑自己的付出，若从零开始，我还会愿意和这个人在一起吗？&#8221;如果答案是否，那就一定要有勇气去放弃过去，去说出那个&#8220;不&#8221;字。幸福是靠自己决定，千万不要因因承诺的一路升级,和一个不合适的人在后悔和矛盾中度过一生！ &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;承诺升级理论（The Theory of Escalating Commitment）： &#8220;继续错误的代价由别人承担，而承认错误的代价由自己承担。&#8221;这句话是诺贝尔经济学奖获得者Joseph Stiglitz的生活哲学。 &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;承诺的升级指的是人们一直固守着某项决策，尽管有明显证据表明该决策是错的。例如：一男士4年来一直和一位女士保持约会关系。尽管他也承认他们两人并不十分和谐，但他还是和这位女士结婚，原因是，他说：在两个人的关系里，我已经投入了太多太多。 &#160; 既然只是一个方案、一种手段，问题解决后，为什么还要保留这个方案、这一手段呢？ 或许只是承诺升级罢了。 如此这般理解了承诺升级之后，我们就会发现承诺升级其实在生活中普遍存在。 举一个我自己的例子。 有一次买十一运即时开的彩票，某一个数字连续出现了3次，我计算了一下它下一次出现的概率小于1/16，因此把它当成小概率不可能事件来处理了。但是它还是出现了第4次。这时候它再出现的概率就降低到了1/32，我便加大了筹码。但是它又出现了第5次。 出现次数越多，再次出现的概率越小，而我加的筹码就越大。从一开始的1注到后来的10注。期间也有想过放弃，觉得我今天真是撞到鬼了，邪了门了。但是想到之前已经买了那么多，这样放弃未免可惜。于是就一直买到它出现了第6次。 这时候我彻底坚持不住了，就此放弃。 [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>在罗宾斯的《管理学》( <em>Management by Robbins and Coulter)</em>一书中，在对有限理性（Bounded Rationality）进行解释的时候，提到了&ldquo;承诺升级（Escalating Commitment）&rdquo;这一名词。</p>
<p>因为放假没带书，网上又找不到英文的电子书，因此再次附上中文内容，待我开学以后再加上原文（如果我还记得的话）。</p>
<p>中文：</p>
<blockquote>
<p style="text-align: center; "><a href="http://www.imjoyo.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/2010-1-19-8-35-43.png"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-155" height="118" src="http://www.imjoyo.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/2010-1-19-8-35-43-300x118.png" title="2010-1-19 8-35-43" width="300" /></a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>如果你在搜索引擎上搜索，(至少现在是这样)，你会发现关于这个概念的中文资料少之又少。</p>
<p><span id="more-154"></span></p>
<p>能够找到的定义是：</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<blockquote>
<p>承诺升级理论（The Theory of Escalating Commitment）： &ldquo;继续错误的代价由别人承担，而承认错误的代价由自己承担。&rdquo;这句话是诺贝尔经济学奖获得者Joseph Stiglitz的生活哲学。</p>
<p>Joseph E.Stiglitz，1943年出生，1967年获麻省理工学院博士学位，此后在剑桥大学从事研究工作。1969年，年仅26岁的Stiglitz被耶鲁大学聘为经济学教授。1979年，他获得了美国经济学会两年一度的约翰.贝茨.克拉克奖，该奖项用于表彰对经济学作出杰出贡献的40岁以下的经济学家。1988年起他在斯坦福大学任经济学教授，自1993年开始成为克林顿总统经济顾问团的主要成员，并且从1995年6月起任该团主席。在此期间，他是克林顿总统顾问班子的关键成员。1997年起任世界银行副总裁、首席经济学家。现任哥伦比亚大学经济学和金融学教授、美国布鲁金斯学会高级研究员。</p>
<p>因&ldquo;对存在着信息不对称的市场的分析&rdquo;，他同阿克洛夫（George Akerlof）和斯彭斯（A Michael Spence）一起分享了2001年度诺贝尔经济学奖。他为信息经济学的创立作出了重大贡献，所著《经济学》被称为与萨缪尔逊的《经济学》齐名的里程碑式的经济学教材&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&ldquo;继续错误的代价由别人承担，而承认错误的代价由自己承担。&rdquo; 简单的讲，就是要勇于承认错误 。</p>
</blockquote>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>这是一个很抽象的概念，让我云里雾里一塌糊涂，但是除此之外很难找到其他的解释了。</p>
<p>我搜索到了几篇学术文章，但是没有办法查看，因为是付费资料。</p>
<p>但是幸好在网易博客中发现一位名为&ldquo;<a href="http://sadan918.blog.163.com/">撒旦</a>&rdquo;的博友写的日志，让我对&ldquo;承诺升级&rdquo;有了更好地认识。</p>
<p>原文如下（<a href="http://sadan918.blog.163.com/blog/static/11726292820091180532865/">点击此处查看</a>）</p>
<blockquote>
<p>为什么两个并不真正相爱，两情并不相悦的人还是能走入婚姻殿堂，婚姻并不幸福的两个人最终还是会走完一生？有时候就是出于承诺升级的心理作用。</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;<wbr>&nbsp;&nbsp;</wbr><wbr>&nbsp;</wbr><wbr>&nbsp;一个小伙子因赌气，因在哥们前撑面子，或因一时的冲动情绪，拉了一下一个陌生姑娘的手，而后的日子里，想想手都拉过了，就和她谈恋爱吧，后来虽然在交往过程中发现不适合，但想想都谈那么久了，就结婚了吧，结了婚，生理无法控制呀，就有了小孩，那该尽父亲的责任吧，然后等小孩大了，都人过中年了，还想什么感情，离什么婚呀，就凑和过一辈子吧。</wbr></p>
<p>&nbsp;<wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr>&nbsp;</wbr><wbr>&nbsp;</wbr><wbr>&nbsp;反过来，女孩子因传统观念的影响，在这方面表现更甚，想想手都被你拉了，人都是你的了，孩子都生了，自己都付出那么多了，再怎么样，也凑和着过吧。</wbr></p>
<p>&nbsp;<wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr>&nbsp;</wbr><wbr>&nbsp;</wbr><wbr>&nbsp;</wbr><wbr>所以告诫各位年轻的朋友，要想一生的幸福，千万不要轻易冲动啊，即便一时的冲动，事后也要谨慎理智分析，如有问题一定要果断处理，长痛不如短痛。特别在婚前一定要问自己一个问题，&ldquo;如果不考虑自己的付出，若从零开始，我还会愿意和这个人在一起吗？&rdquo;如果答案是否，那就一定要有勇气去放弃过去，去说出那个&ldquo;不&rdquo;字。幸福是靠自己决定，千万不要因因承诺的一路升级,和一个不合适的人在后悔和矛盾中度过一生！</wbr></p>
<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;承诺升级理论（The Theory of Escalating Commitment）： &ldquo;继续错误的代价由别人承担，而承认错误的代价由自己承担。&rdquo;这句话是诺贝尔经济学奖获得者Joseph Stiglitz的生活哲学。</p>
<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;承诺的升级指的是人们一直固守着某项决策，尽管有明显证据表明该决策是错的。例如：一男士4年来一直和一位女士保持约会关系。尽管他也承认他们两人并不十分和谐，但他还是和这位女士结婚，原因是，他说：在两个人的关系里，我已经投入了太多太多。</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>既然只是一个方案、一种手段，问题解决后，为什么还要保留这个方案、这一手段呢？</p>
<p>或许只是承诺升级罢了。</p>
</blockquote>
<p><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></p>
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<p></wbr></p>
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<p><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr> </wbr></p>
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	<wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></p>
<p><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr></p>
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<p><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr> </wbr></p>
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	<wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></wbr><wbr></p>
<p>如此这般理解了承诺升级之后，我们就会发现承诺升级其实在生活中普遍存在。</p>
<p>举一个我自己的例子。</p>
<p>有一次买十一运即时开的彩票，某一个数字连续出现了3次，我计算了一下它下一次出现的概率小于1/16，因此把它当成小概率不可能事件来处理了。但是它还是出现了第4次。这时候它再出现的概率就降低到了1/32，我便加大了筹码。但是它又出现了第5次。</p>
<p>出现次数越多，再次出现的概率越小，而我加的筹码就越大。从一开始的1注到后来的10注。期间也有想过放弃，觉得我今天真是撞到鬼了，邪了门了。但是想到之前已经买了那么多，这样放弃未免可惜。于是就一直买到它出现了第6次。</p>
<p>这时候我彻底坚持不住了，就此放弃。</p>
<p>后来我查看开奖记录，发现真的是邪了门。那个数字连续出现达9次之多，概率为(3/8)<sup>9</sup>&lt;1/512。</p>
<p>幸好及时脱身。</p>
<p>再比如说等车。假设你在等一辆不准时的公共汽车，你知道它大约1~2小时一班。当你等了1个小时的时候，就开始不耐烦了，可是这时候车出现的可能性就大了，你会想&ldquo;反正已经等了这么久，就继续等下去吧&rdquo;。当你等了2个小时的时候，会怀疑为什么车还不出现，或许半路上抛锚了，或许是其他原因不会出现了，但是可能你会想&ldquo;万一来了呢？既然都等了那么久，再等一会儿也没关系吧&rdquo;。于是，承诺升级又出现了。</p>
<p>也就是说我们为某件事物付出了越多，就越容易出现承诺升级的现象。</p>
<p>那么&nbsp;&ldquo;继续错误的代价由别人承担，而承认错误的代价由自己承担。&rdquo;这句话如何理解呢？</p>
<p>网上没有找到确切的解释，我只好自己来理解。</p>
<p>首先，承诺升级的出现需要有一个&ldquo;错误&rdquo;存在。不管是同一个数字出现了9次，还是车误点，这都相当于一个扰乱了常规的&ldquo;错误&rdquo;。而如果我们及时发现了这个错误，我们便不需要付出&ldquo;继续&rdquo;这个&ldquo;错误&rdquo;的代价。比如说我发现同一数字在概率小于1/128的时候仍然出现，认为是邪门的时候，就此放弃，便可以避免付出&ldquo;继续错误&rdquo;的代价，但是于此同时，我必须承认我之前投注的行为是错误的，所以我便付出了&ldquo;承认错误&rdquo;的代价。</p>
<p>同理等车一例也是如此。</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>在罗宾斯的《管理学》关于有限理性的研究中，为什么要提到承诺升级呢？</p>
<p>这是因为承诺升级是建立于有限理性的基础之上的。</p>
<p>有限理性只要求达到&ldquo;满足&rdquo;而非实现&ldquo;最优&rdquo;，因此这就为犯错误埋下了伏笔；犯错误之后继续犯错，才可能发生承诺升级。如果从一开始就追求完全理性，则不会发生承诺升级。</p>
<p>如此这般，我就可以推测到在网上找到的那些我不能看的文章的内容了。</p>
<p>其中《<a href="http://www.cqvip.com/qk/96986X/200803/26878243.html" onmousedown="return clk(this.href,'','','res','3','&amp;sig2=dIFwi5W8L_Zo0USHV2acfQ','0CBUQFjAC')" target="_blank">决策者的承诺升级行为</a>》和《<a href="http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-syyj200623014.html">决策者人格特征对承诺升级的影响研究</a>》（<a href="http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-syyj200623014.html">The Effects of Decision Maker&#39;s Personality Traits on Commitment Escalation</a>）的大致研究方向也就很容易被猜测得到了。</p>
<p>在决策者这一管理层次中，&ldquo;承认错误&rdquo;的代价被高估了，甚至被认为高于&ldquo;继续错误&rdquo;的代价，因此会导致一错再错的情况发生。</p>
<p>讲到这里，我觉得非常有意思，因为我发现了&ldquo;承诺升级&rdquo;与另一个概念之间存在着联系：&ldquo;沉没（又&lsquo;淀&rsquo;）成本&rdquo;（Sunk Cost）。</p>
<p>由于没有做到忽略沉没成本，导致了买彩票赔钱以及等车浪费时间等错误的出现。</p>
<p>但是在管理者这一层次，还涉及了&ldquo;心理效用&rdquo;这一名词。</p>
<p>在汤吉军先生的《<a href="http://www.cqvip.com/qk/82016X/200908/31221258.html">沉淀成本效应的行为经济学分析</a>》一文中谈到&ldquo;沉淀成本造成投资者的一种损失， 使其遭受心理痛苦， 尊重沉淀成本是达到补偿沉淀成本、降低心理成本或提高心理效用的一种方式， 符合经济人的心理需求&rdquo;。</p>
<p>没有查到&ldquo;心理效用&rdquo;的英文，但是据猜测一定是存在&ldquo;utility&rdquo;这个单词的。</p>
<p>关于&ldquo;效用&rdquo;（utility），我觉得这是一个微妙的词汇。它很难被衡量，也有点抽象。但是它却确确实实存在着。</p>
<p>当决策者发觉自己某一决策失误时，可能会认为已经有所付出（没有忽略沉没成本），于是选择&ldquo;继续错误&rdquo;（承诺升级），而非&ldquo;承认错误&rdquo;（以获得心理效用）。</p>
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